Texas Employs Aerial Spraying to Combat West Nile Virus (Video and info 08-17-12)

Texas Employs Aerial Spraying to Combat West Nile Virus

 Published on Aug 16, 2012 by PBSNewsHour

A current epidemic of West Nile virus has claimed the lives of 26 people in the U.S., 10 in Texas alone. In Dallas and the surrounding county, authorities have declared a state of emergency. Jeffrey Brown talks to Baylor College of Medicine's Dr. Kristi Murray about the outbreak and how the state targets infected mosquitoes.

Video Link...
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5cqUZn9pZJo

West Nile Symptoms

By Mayo Clinic staff

Most have no symptoms
Most people infected with the West Nile virus have no signs or symptoms.

Mild infection signs and symptoms
About 20 percent of people develop a mild infection called West Nile fever. Common signs and symptoms of West Nile fever include:

• Fever
• Headache
• Body aches
• Fatigue
• Skin rash (occasionally)
• Swollen lymph glands (occasionally)
• Eye pain (occasionally)

Serious infection signs and symptoms
In less than 1 percent of infected people, the virus causes a serious neurological infection. Such infection may include inflammation of the brain (encephalitis) or of the brain and surrounding membranes (meningoencephalitis). Serious infection may also include infection and inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord (meningitis), inflammation of the spinal cord (West Nile poliomyelitis) and acute flaccid paralysis — a sudden weakness in your arms, legs or breathing muscles. Signs and symptoms of these diseases include:

• High fever
• Severe headache
• Stiff neck
• Disorientation or confusion
• Stupor or coma
• Tremors or muscle jerking
• Lack of coordination
• Convulsions
• Pain
• Partial paralysis or sudden weakness

Signs and symptoms of West Nile fever usually last a few days, but sign and symptoms of encephalitis or meningitis can linger for weeks, and certain neurological effects, such as muscle weakness, may be permanent.

• Definition
• Symptoms
• Causes
• Risk factors
• Preparing for your appointment
• Tests and diagnosis
• Treatments and drugs
• Prevention

When to see a doctor

Read More..
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/west-nile-virus/DS00438/DSECTION=symptoms

New West Nile Threat: Kidney Disease

Even Without Symptoms, West Nile Virus May Lead to Lasting Infection of the Kidneys

By Daniel J. DeNoon
WebMD Health News

Reviewed by LouiseChang, MD

Aug. 17, 2012 -- Early in this year's West Nile virus season, the death toll is at 29 and rising. There have been about 700 illnesses reported so far, more than 400 of them serious meningitis or encephalitis.

It's an unusually severe West Nile season -- and now there's new evidence that the virus itself may be unusually dangerous. The new threat: kidney disease years after infection.

Eight in 10 people infected with West Nile virus don't get sick. At least not right away. A new study finds that even in people who never had serious West Nile symptoms, the virus can burrow deep into the body. Years later, this persistent infection often leads to kidney disease that gets worse and worse over time.

As many as 9% of people who have mild or no initial symptoms may have persistent West Nile virus infection, says Baylor University West Nile expert Kristy O. Murray, PhD, DVM.

"Right now, we have seen people continually decline. We have no specific treatment for them to reverse what is happening," Murray says. "Will they eventually need dialysis? It will mean following them even longer to see if some stabilize."

In an NIH-funded study, Murray's team has been keeping track of about 200 people infected with West Nile infection over the last 10 years. About 40% of them now are showing signs of kidney disease and lasting West Nile virus infection.

Patients who survived the terrible symptoms of severe West Nile disease -- sometimes-paralyzing meningitis or encephalitis -- were most likely to suffer persistent infection. These patients also were most likely to have severe kidney damage.

But this is happening even to people who never had symptoms -- people who learned of their West Nile infection only when they were tested when donating blood.

It's an "important" finding, says William Schaffner, MD, professor and chair of preventive medicine at Vanderbilt University and president of the National Foundation for Infectious Diseases.

"This study suggests that West Nile virus infection not only can persist, but that like a termite it slowly and surely gnaws away at kidney function," he says.

Read More...
http://www.webmd.com/news/20120817/new-west-nile-threat-kidney-disease?src=RSS_PUBLIC

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Celebrate Wikipedia Loves Libraries at your institution in October/November.

West Nile virus

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve this article to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details. The talk page may contain suggestions. (August 2012)

West Nile virus
Virus classification
Group:	Group IV ((+)ssRNA)
Family:	Flaviviridae
Genus:	Flavivirus
Species:	West Nile virus

West Nile virus (WNV) is one of the Japanese encephalitis (JE) antigenic serocomplex of viruses, in the family Flaviviridae. It is found in both temperate and tropical regions, having been first identified in the West Nile sub-region in the East African nation of Uganda in 1937.

WNV mainly infects birds, but is known to infect humans, horses, dogs, cats, bats, chipmunks, skunks, squirrels, domestic rabbits, crocodiles^[1] and alligators.^[2] The main route of human infection is through the bite of an infected mosquito. Approximately 80 percent of West Nile virus infections in humans are without any symptoms.^[3]

Image reconstructions and cryoelectron microscopy reveal a 45–50 nm virion covered with a relatively smooth protein surface. This structure is similar to the dengue fever virus; both belong to the genus Flavivirus within the family Flaviviridae. The genetic material of WNV is a positive-sense, single strand of RNA, which is between 11,000 and 12,000 nucleotides long; these genes encode seven nonstructural proteins and three structural proteins. The RNA strand is held within a nucleocapsid formed from 12-kDa protein blocks; the capsid is contained within a host-derived membrane altered by two viral glycoproteins.

West Nile Fever
Classification and external resources
ICD-10	A92.3
ICD-9	066.4
DiseasesDB	30025
MeSH	D014901

Contents 1 Symptoms 2 Transmission and susceptibility 2.1 Transmission 2.2 Susceptibility 3 History 4 Overwintering mechanism 5 Geographic distribution 6 Recent outbreaks 7 Surveillance methods 8 Control 9 Treatment research 10 See also 11 Notes 12 External links

Symptoms

The West Nile virus produces one of three different outcomes in humans. The first is an asymptomatic infection; the second is a mild febrile syndrome termed West Nile fever;^[4] the third is a neuroinvasive disease termed West Nile meningitis or encephalitis.^[5] The population proportion of these three states is roughly 110:30:1.^[6]

The second, febrile stage has an incubation period of two to eight days followed by fever, headache, chills, diaphoresis (excessive sweating), weakness, lymphadenopathy (swollen lymph nodes), drowsiness, pain in the joints and symptoms like those of influenza. Occasionally, some patients experience a short-lived truncal rash or gastrointestinal symptoms, including nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, or diarrhea. Symptoms are generally resolved within seven to 10 days, although fatigue can persist for some weeks and lymphadenopathy up to two months.

The more dangerous encephalitis is characterized by similar early symptoms, but also a decreased level of consciousness, sometimes approaching near-coma. Deep tendon reflexes are hyperactive at first, later diminished. There are also extrapyramidal symptoms. Recovery is marked by a long convalescence with fatigue.

More recent outbreaks have resulted in a deeper study of the disease and other, rarer, outcomes have been identified. The spinal cord may be infected, marked by anterior myelitis with or without encephalitis.^[7] WNV-associated Guillain-Barré syndrome has been identified^[8] and other rare effects include multifocal chorioretinitis (which has 100% specificity for identifying WNV infection in patients with possible WNV encephalitis),^[9] hepatitis, myocarditis, nephritis, pancreatitis, and splenomegaly.^[10][11][12]

Transmission and susceptibility

Transmission

The proboscis of an Aedes albopictus mosquito pierces the skin to allow it to feed on human blood. A. albopictus mosquito (Asian tiger mosquito) - an invasive species in North America - is a vector of various diseases including the West Nile virus.

The virus is transmitted through mosquito vectors, which bite and infect birds. The birds are amplifying hosts, developing sufficient viral levels to transmit the infection to other biting mosquitoes which go on to infect other birds (in the Western Hemisphere, the American robin and the American crow are the most common carriers) and also humans. The infected mosquito species vary according to geographical area; in the US, Culex pipiens (Eastern US), Culex tarsalis (Midwest and West), and Culex quinquefasciatus (Southeast) are the main sources.^[13]

In mammals, the virus does not multiply as readily (i.e. does not develop high viremia during infection), and mosquitoes biting infected mammals are not believed to ingest sufficient virus to become infected,^[14] making mammals so-called dead-end infections.

A 2004 paper in Science reported Culex pipiens mosquitoes existed in two populations in Europe, one which bites birds and one which bites humans. In North America, 40% of C. pipiens mosquitos were found to be hybrids of the two types which bite both birds and humans, providing a vector for WNV. This is argued to provide an explanation of why the West Nile disease has spread more quickly in North America than Europe.^[15] However, these conclusions have been disputed.^[16] In 2010, the Greek Center for Disease Control and Prevention verified C. pipiens was responsible for an outbreak of the virus in northern Greece.^[17]

Susceptibility

Direct human-to-human transmission initially was believed to be caused only by occupational exposure,^[18] or conjunctival exposure to infected blood.^[19] The US outbreak revealed novel transmission methods, through blood transfusion,^[20] organ transplant,^[21] intrauterine exposure,^[22] and breast feeding.^[23] Since 2003, blood banks in the US routinely screen for the virus among their donors.^[24] As a precautionary measure, the UK's National Blood Service initially ran a test for this disease in donors who donate within 28 days of a visit to the United States, Canada or the northeastern provinces of Italy. Currently (September 2011), the policy of the National Blood Service is as follows:

"In the last year there have been significant outbreaks in mainland Greece, Romania, Albania, Israel and in the south west of the Russian Federation just north of the Black and Caspian Seas. In recent years North Eastern Italy in the provincial districts of Ferrara, Rovigo, Mantua, Modena, Bologna and Reggio Emilia (an area north of Rimini and east of Parma) have also been affected. Donors who have visited a WNV endemic area between April 1st and November 30th may donate blood four weeks after their return, as long as they have had neither symptoms nor evidence of infection. If the donor was diagnosed with WNV, or had a history of symptoms suggestive of WNV, whilst in the endemic area or following their return then they must wait 6 months before donating."^[25]

The Scottish National Blood Transfusion Service^[26] is to ask prospective donors to wait 28 days after returning from North America or the northeastern provinces of Italy before donating.

The more severe outcomes of WNV infection are clearly associated with advancing age^[27] and a patient history of organ transplantation^[28] and diabetes^{[citation needed]}. A genetic factor also appears to increase susceptibility to West Nile disease. A mutation of the gene CCR5 gives some protection against HIV but leads to more serious complications of WNV infection. Carriers of two mutated copies of CCR5 made up 4.0 to 4.5% of a sample of West Nile disease sufferers, while the incidence of the gene in the general population is only 1.0%.^[29][30]

Recently, the potential for mosquito saliva to impact the course of WNV disease was demonstrated.^[31][32][33] Mosquitoes inoculate their saliva into the skin while obtaining blood. Mosquito saliva is a pharmacologic cocktail of secreted molecules, principally proteins, that can affect vascular constriction, blood coagulation, platelet aggregation, inflammation, and immunity. It clearly alters the immune response in a manner that may be advantageous to a virus.^{[34][35][36][37]} Studies have shown it can specifically modulate the immune response during early virus infection,^[38] and mosquito feeding can exacerbate WNV infection, leading to higher viremia and more severe forms of disease.^[31][32][33] It is unknown what benefit, if any, the mosquito receives by assisting the virus in this manner, so it is likely the virus is simply exploiting the pre-existing qualities of mosquito saliva developed for other purposes.^{[according to whom?]}

There is no vaccine for humans. A vaccine for horses (ATCvet code: QI05AA10) based on killed viruses exists; some zoos have given this vaccine to their birds, although its effectiveness is unknown. Dogs and cats show few if any signs of infection. There have been no known cases of direct canine-human or feline-human transmission; although these pets can become infected, it is unlikely they are, in turn, capable of infecting native mosquitoes and thus continuing the disease cycle.^[39]

Avoiding mosquito bites is the most straightforward means to avoid infection;^[40] remaining indoors (while preventing mosquitoes from entering) at dawn and dusk, wearing light-colored clothing that covers arms and legs, as well as the trunk, and using insect repellents on both skin and clothing (such as DEET, picaradin, or oil of lemon eucalyptus for skin and permethrin for clothes) are effective.^[41] If one becomes infected, generally, treatment is purely supportive: analgesia for the pain of neurologic diseases, and rehydration for nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea; encephalitis may also require airway protection and seizure management.

Reported cases in the U.S. in 2005 exceeded those in 2004, and cases in 2006 exceeded 2005's totals. On August 19, 2006, the LA Times reported the expected incidence rate of WNV was dropping as the local population becomes exposed to the virus. "In countries like Egypt and Uganda, where West Nile was first detected, people became fully immune to the virus by the time they reached adulthood", federal health officials said.^[42] However, just days later, the CDC said WNV cases could reach a three-year high because hot temperatures had allowed a larger brood of mosquitoes.^[43] Although currently no West Nile virus vaccine is available for humans, many scientists are working on this issue, and hopefully a vaccine will become available in the next few years.^{[citation needed]}

History

Studies of phylogenetic lineages determined WNV emerged as a distinct virus around 1000 years ago.^[44] This initial virus developed into two distinct lineages, lineage 1 and its multiple profiles is the source of the epidemic transmission in Africa and throughout the world. Lineage 2 was considered an Africa zoonose. However, in 2008, lineage 2, previously only seen in horses in sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar, began to appear in horses in Europe, where the first known outbreak affected 18 animals in Hungary in 2008.^[45] Lineage 1 West Nile virus was detected in South Africa in 2010 in a mare and her aborted fetus; previously, only lineage 2 West Nile virus had been detected in horses and humans in South Africa.^[46] A 2007 fatal case in a killer whale in Texas broadened the known host range of West Nile virus to include cetaceans.^[47]

WNV has been posited as one of the possible causes of Alexander the Great's early death based on reports of avian deaths before his illness period.^[48]

WNV was first isolated from a feverish 37-year-old woman at Omogo in the West Nile District of Uganda in 1937 during research on yellow fever virus.^[49] A series of serosurveys in 1939 in central Africa found anti-WNV positive results ranging from 1.4% (Congo) to 46.4% (White Nile region, Sudan). It was subsequently identified in Egypt (1942) and India (1953), a 1950 serosurvey in Egypt found 90% of those over 40 years in age had WNV antibodies. The ecology was characterized in 1953 with studies in Egypt^[50] and Israel.^[51] The virus became recognized as a cause of severe human meningoencephalitis in elderly patients during an outbreak in Israel in 1957. The disease was first noted in horses in Egypt and France in the early 1960s and found to be widespread in southern Europe, southwest Asia and Australia.

The first appearance of WNV in the Western Hemisphere was in 1999 with encephalitis reported in humans, dogs, cats, and horses, and the subsequent spread in the United States may be an important milestone in the evolving history of this virus. The American outbreak began in the New York City area (specifically, College Point, Queens) and was later seen in New Jersey and Connecticut; the virus is believed to have entered in an infected bird or mosquito, although there is no clear evidence.^[52] The US virus was very closely related to a lineage 1 strain found in Israel in 1998. Since the first North American cases in 1999, the virus has been reported throughout the United States, Canada, Mexico, the Caribbean and Central America. There have been human cases and equine cases, and many birds are infected. The Barbary macaque, Macaca sylvanus, was the first nonhuman primate to contract WNV.^[53] Both the US and Israeli strains are marked by high mortality rates in infected avian populations; the presence of dead birds—especially Corvidae—can be an early indicator of the arrival of the virus.

A high level of media coverage through 2001/2002 raised public awareness of WNV. This coverage was most likely the result of successive appearances of the virus in new areas, and had the unintended effect of increasing funding for research on this virus and related arthropod-borne viruses. Such research has expanded our understanding of viruses transmitted by mosquitoes.

Overwintering mechanism

Vertical transmission of West Nile virus from C. pipiens mosquitoes to their progeny has been demonstrated in the laboratory. It has not been suggested that vertically infected Culex mosquitoes could survive the winter to initiate a WNV amplification cycle the following spring. Culex mosquitoes spend the winter hibernating in protected structures such as root cellars, bank barns, caves, abandoned tunnels and other subterranean locations. The first overwintering adult mosquitoes to test positive for WNV were collected in New York in 2000. Since then, positive samples have been identified in New Jersey in 2003, and in Pennsylvania in 2003-05.^[54]

Geographic distribution

West Nile virus has been described in Africa, Europe, the Middle East, west and central Asia, Oceania (subtype Kunjin), and most recently, North America.

Recent outbreaks of West Nile virus encephalitis in humans have occurred in Algeria (1994), Romania (1996 to 1997), the Czech Republic (1997), Congo (1998), Russia (1999), the United States (1999 to 2009), Canada (1999–2007), Israel (2000) and Greece (2010).

Epizootics of disease in horses occurred in Morocco (1996), Italy (1998), the United States (1999 to 2001), and France (2000). In 2003, West Nile virus was found in horses in Mexico. In 2011, West Nile virus was found in horses in Sardinia (Italy).

In the US in 2008, West Nile virus was reported in animals in 47 states, D.C. and Puerto Rico. Forty-five states and D.C. reported human cases in 2008, with only Maine, Alaska and Hawaii having never had a human case. (Maine has had occasional animal cases.)^[55]

Recent outbreaks

See also: Progress of the West Nile virus in the United States

United States: From 1999 through 2001, the CDC confirmed 149 West Nile virus infections, including 18 deaths. In 2002, a total of 4,156 cases were reported, including 284 fatalities. Thirteen cases in 2002 were contracted through blood transfusion. The cost of WNV-related health care in 2002 was estimated at $200 million. The first human West Nile disease in 2003 occurred in June, and one West Nile-infected blood transfusion was also identified that month. In the 2003 outbreak, 9,862 cases and 264 deaths were reported by the CDC. At least 30% of those cases were considered severe, involving meningitis or encephalitis. In 2004, only 2,539 cases and 100 deaths were reported. In 2005, there was a slight increase in the number of cases, with 3,000 cases and 119 deaths reported. Cases increased in 2006, with 4,269 cases and 177 deaths. In 2007, the number of cases reported decreased to 3,623 and the number of deaths dropped to 124. In 2007, 1,227 cases of WNV neuroinvasion disease and 117 deaths occurred. In 2008, West Nile surveillance data reported to CDC, a total of 28 states have reported 236 cases of human WNV illness. A total of 137 cases for which such data were available occurred in males, median age patients was 48 years. Dates of illness onset ranged from January 17 to August 14: Two cases were fatal. In 2009, 663 cases were reported; of these, 335 were encephalitis or meningitis infections, a reaction to the virus that approximately one in 150 people who get the virus will show. Three hundred and two cases were filed for West Nile fever, the most likely symptom of the virus; 26 cases were unspecified. The state of Texas had the most cases, with 104 total. The total mortality rate for 2009 was 32 deaths of the 663 reported serious cases, a 4.5% casualty rate, but only of the severe infections. Approximately 80% of cases have no symptoms, so the total casualty rate would be less than 1% of total infections in the U.S. These and earlier years data are available from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.^[56] Dallas County, Texas health officials announced in the second week of August 2012 a death toll of nine so far in the county. County Judge Clay Jenkins declared a public health emergency for the county on August 9, 2012, due to the West Nile virus outbreak in the area.^[57][58]

West Nile Virus Cases in the United States

Canada: One human death occurred in 1999. In 2002, ten human deaths out of 416 confirmed and probable cases were reported by Canadian health officials. In 2003, 14 deaths and 1,494 confirmed and probable cases were reported. Cases were reported in 2003 in Nova Scotia, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia, and the Yukon. In 2004, only 26 cases were reported and two deaths; however, 2005 saw 239 cases and 12 deaths. By October 28, 2006, 127 cases and no deaths had been reported. One case was asymptomatic and only discovered through a blood donation. In 2007, 445 Manitobans had confirmed cases of WNV and two people died with a third unconfirmed but suspected.^[59] 17 people have either tested positive or are suspected of having the virus in Saskatchewan, and only one person has tested positive in Alberta.^[60] Saskatchewan has reported 826 cases of WNV plus three deaths.^[61] The spread of West Nile Virus infected mosquitoes to British Columbia for the first time was reported in 2009^[62]

Israel: In the year 2000, the CDC found 417 confirmed cases with 326 hospitalizations; 33 of these people died. The main clinical presentations were encephalitis (57.9%), febrile disease (24.4%), and meningitis (15.9%).^[63]

Romania: In 1996–1997, about 500 cases occurred in Romania with a fatality rate of nearly 10%. In 2010, 34 cases were confirmed, with 3 fatalities.^[64]

Greece: In the summer of 2010, several cases were reported in mainly in northern Greece, a countrywide total of 262 diagnosed cases and 35 fatalities.^[65] In 2011 the virus spread to central Greece but with fewer cases, 101 diagnosed and 9 fatalities.^[66]. In 2012, 44 were diagnosed and 3 died.^[67] The total number of people in Greece infected by the virus is estimated to 1,800.^[68]

Surveillance methods

West Nile virus can be sampled from the environment by the pooling of trapped mosquitoes, testing avian blood samples drawn from wild birds, dogs and sentinel monkeys, as well as testing brains of dead birds found by various animal control agencies and the public. Testing of the mosquito samples requires the use of RT-PCR to directly amplify and show the presence of virus in the submitted samples. When using the blood sera of wild birds and sentinel chickens, samples must be tested for the presence of WNV antibodies by use of immunohistochemistry (IHC)^[69] or Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA).^[70]

Dead birds, after necropsy, have their various tissues tested for virus by either RT-PCR or IHC, where virus shows up as brown-stained tissue because of a substrate-enzyme reaction.

Control

West Nile virus warning sign in Southern California

West Nile control is achieved through mosquito control, by elimination of mosquito breeding sites, larviciding active breeding areas and encouraging personal use of mosquito repellents. The public is also encouraged to spend less time outdoors, wear long covering clothing, apply bug repellant that contains DEET, and ensure mosquitoes cannot enter buildings.^[71] Environmentalists have condemned attempts to control the transmitting mosquitoes by spraying pesticide, saying the detrimental health effects of spraying outweigh the relatively few lives which may be saved, and more environmentally friendly ways of controlling mosquitoes are available. They also question the effectiveness of insecticide spraying, as they believe mosquitoes that are resting or flying above the level of spraying will not be killed; the most common vector in the northeastern US, Culex pipiens, is a canopy feeder.

The first effective horse vaccine, West Nile-INNOVATOR was introduced by Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth). Shortly thereafter, a second, one-annual-dose vaccine called Prevenile was introduced by Intervet/Schering-Plough Animal Health (Merck),^[72] followed by a DNA-based vaccine, called Recombitek (Merial). In 2009, a new killed virus vaccine was introduced by Boehringer-Ingelheim, a privately held pharmaceutical company, incorporating an equine-origin WNV strain (E159), representative of the more recent WNV strains impacting horses.^[73]

Treatment research

AMD3100, which had been proposed as an antiretroviral drug for HIV, has shown promise against West Nile encephalitis. Morpholino antisense oligos conjugated to cell penetrating peptides have been shown to partially protect mice from WNV disease.^[74] There have also been attempts to treat infections using ribavirin, intravenous immunoglobulin, or alpha interferon.^[75] GenoMed, a U.S. biotech company, has found that blocking angiotensin II can treat the "cytokine storm" of West Nile virus encephalitis as well as other viruses.^[76]

In 2007, the World Community Grid launched the Discovering Dengue Drugs – Together project. This uses a distributed network of volunteers' computers via the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing to perform computer simulations of interacting molecules. Thousands of small molecules are screened for potential antiviral properties with respect to West Nile and related viruses.

See also

• CCR5
• Psorophora howardii

Notes

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2. ^ Klenk, K.; Snow, J.; Morgan, K.; Bowen, R.; Stephens, M.; Foster, F.; Gordy, P.; Beckett, S. et al. (2004). "Alligators as West Nile virus amplifiers". Emerging Infectious Diseases 10 (12): 2150–2155. PMID 15663852. edit
3. ^ "West Nile Virus: What You Need to Know CDC Fact Sheet". www.CDC.gov. Retrieved 2012.04.09.
4. ^ Olejnik E (1952). "Infectious adenitis transmitted by Culex molestus". Bull Res Counc Isr 2: 210–1.
5. ^ Smithburn KC, Jacobs HR (1942). "Neutralization-tests against neurotropic viruses with sera collected in central Africa". Journal of Immunology 44: 923.
6. ^ Tsai TF, Popovici F, Cernescu C, Campbell GL, Nedelcu NI (1998). "West Nile encephalitis epidemic in southeastern Romania". Lancet 352 (9130): 767–71. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(98)03538-7. PMID 9737281.
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9. ^ Abroug F, Ouanes-Besbes L, Letaief M, et al. (2006). "A cluster study of predictors of severe West Nile virus infection". Mayo Clin. Proc. 81 (1): 12–6. doi:10.4065/81.1.12. PMID 16438473.
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11. ^ Omalu BI, Shakir AA, Wang G, Lipkin WI, Wiley CA (2003). "Fatal fulminant pan-meningo-polioencephalitis due to West Nile virus". Brain Pathol. 13 (4): 465–72. doi:10.1111/j.1750-3639.2003.tb00477.x. PMID 14655752.
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13. ^ Hayes EB, Komar N, Nasci RS, Montgomery SP, O'Leary DR, Campbell GL (2005). "Epidemiology and transmission dynamics of West Nile virus disease". Emerging Infect. Dis. 11 (8): 1167–73. PMID 16102302.
14. ^ Taylor RM, Hurlbut HS, Dressler HR, Spangler EW, Thrasher D (1953). "Isolation of West Nile virus from Culex mosquitoes". J Egypt Med Assoc 36 (3): 199–208. PMID 13084817.
15. ^ Fonseca DM, et al. (March 2004). "Emerging vectors in the Culex pipiens complex". Science 303 (5663): 1535–8. doi:10.1126/science.1094247. PMID 15001783.
16. ^ Spielman A, et al. (November 2004). "Outbreak of West Nile Virus in North America". Science 306 (5701): 1473–5. doi:10.1126/science.306.5701.1473c. PMID 15567836.
17. ^ "Virus culprit tracked down". Kathimerini. 2010-08-21. Retrieved 2010-08-21.
18. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2002). "Laboratory-acquired West Nile virus infections—United States, 2002". MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 51 (50): 1133–5. PMID 12537288.
19. ^ Fonseca K, Prince GD, Bratvold J, et al. (2005). "West Nile virus infection and conjunctival exposure". Emerging Infect. Dis. 11 (10): 1648–9. PMID 16355512.
20. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2002). "Investigation of blood transfusion recipients with West Nile virus infections". MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 51 (36): 823. PMID 12269472.
21. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2002). "West Nile virus infection in organ donor and transplant recipients—Georgia and Florida, 2002". MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 51 (35): 790. PMID 12227442.
22. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2002). "Intrauterine West Nile virus infection—New York, 2002". MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 51 (50): 1135–6. PMID 12537289.
23. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2002). "Possible West Nile virus transmission to an infant through breast-feeding—Michigan, 2002". MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 51 (39): 877–8. PMID 12375687.
24. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2003). "Detection of West Nile virus in blood donations—United States, 2003". MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 52 (32): 769–72. PMID 12917583.
25. ^ [1]
26. ^ SNBTS position on West Nile virus
27. ^ Panthier R, Hannoun C, Beytout D, Mouchet J (1968). "[Epidemiology of West Nile virus. Study of a center in Camargue.]" (in French). Ann Inst Pasteur, Paris 115 (3): 435–45. PMID 5711530.
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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: West Nile virus

• The Encephalitis Society - a comprehensive resource on all aspects of Encephalitis and a source of support for those affected and their families.
• West Nile Virus - U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) page
• Recommendations for Protecting Laboratory, Field, and Clinical Workers from West Nile Virus Exposure
• West Nile Virus Resource Guide—National Pesticide Information Center
• Vaccine Research Center (VRC)—Information concerning WNV vaccine research studies
• Nature news article on West Nile paralysis
• CBC News Coverage of West Nile in Canada
• Gene mutation turned West Nile virus into killer disease among crows
• Virus Pathogen Database and Analysis Resource (ViPR): Flaviviridae
• Species Profile- West Nile Virus (Flavivirus), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for West Nile Virus.

[hide] v t e Zoonotic viral diseases (A80–B34 Arthropod-borne Mosquito-borne Bunyaviridae Arbovirus encephalitides: La Crosse encephalitis (LACV) California encephalitis (CEV) Viral hemorrhagic fevers: Rift Valley fever (RVFV) Flaviviridae Arbovirus encephalitides: Japanese encephalitis (JEV) Australian encephalitis (MVEV KUNV) St. Louis encephalitis (SLEV) West Nile fever (WNV) Viral hemorrhagic fevers: Dengue fever (DENV-1-4) Yellow fever (YFV) ZIKV Togaviridae Arbovirus encephalitides: Eastern equine encephalomyelitis (EEEV) Western equine encephalomyelitis (WEEV) Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis (VEEV) Chikungunya (CHIKV) O'Nyong-nyong fever (ONNV) Ross River fever (RRV) Tick-borne Bunyaviridae Viral hemorrhagic fevers: Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHFV) Flaviviridae Arbovirus encephalitides: Tick-borne encephalitis (TBEV) Powassan encephalitis (POWV) Viral hemorrhagic fevers: Omsk hemorrhagic fever (OHFV) Kyasanur forest disease (KFDV/AHFV) Langat virus (LGTV) Reoviridae Colorado tick fever (CTFV) Mammal-borne Rodent-borne Arenaviridae Viral hemorrhagic fevers: Lassa fever (LASV) Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever (GTOV) Argentine hemorrhagic fever (JUNV) Brazilian hemorrhagic fever (SABV) Bolivian hemorrhagic fever (MACV) LUJV CHPV Bunyaviridae Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (DOBV HTNV PUUV SEOV) Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (ANDV SNV) Bat-borne Filoviridae Viral hemorrhagic fevers: Ebola virus disease (BDBV EBOV SUDV TAFV) Marburg virus disease (MARV RAVV) Rhabdoviridae Rabies (ABLV MOKV DUVV LBV) CHPV Paramyxoviridae Henipavirus encephalitis (HeV NiV) Multiple vectors Rhabdoviridae Rabies (RABV) M: VIR virs(prot)/clss cutn/syst (hppv/hiva, infl/zost/zoon)/epon drug(dnaa, rnaa, rtva, vacc)

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• Horse diseases
• Flaviviruses
• Arthropod-borne viral fevers and viral haemorrhagic fevers
• Zoonoses
• Tropical diseases
• Insect-borne diseases
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